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Everything asserted on this site is listed below with a link to the primary research, the UN dataset, or the government document it came from. Where a popular figure is shaky, we use the defensible version.

Pig gas stunning: evidence by country

The sources behind the gas chamber in the scroll journey, the pig file and the Library’s answers on slaughter. Within each country, government figures and rules come first, and every industry estimate is labelled as one.

The science

  1. Pigs are loaded five to seven at a time into a metal cage, or gondola, that is lowered into a pit of CO₂. The gas dissolves on the eyes, nose, mouth and lungs to form carbonic acid, which is painful, and pigs take 21 to 60 seconds to lose consciousness. The UK government’s Animal Welfare Committee says the gas is “known to be both aversive to pigs and to cause them severe pain and distress before becoming unconscious”.

    UK Animal Welfare Committee, Opinion on the welfare impacts on pigs of high concentration CO₂ gas stunning (2025), paras 30, 48, 50 and 53.

  2. High-concentration CO₂ is “highly aversive and causes pain, fear and respiratory distress”, and nothing can prevent or correct this because it is “inherent to the stunning method”.

    EFSA AHAW Panel, Welfare of pigs at slaughter, EFSA Journal 18(6):6148 (2020), sections 3.2.4.3 and 4.3.

  3. Brain (EEG) recordings put loss of consciousness at an average of 33 seconds after the cage began to descend into 95% CO₂, and 47 seconds in 80% CO₂. On average, pigs collapsed about 10 seconds before they lost consciousness.

    Verhoeven, M. et al., Frontiers in Veterinary Science 3:38 (2016).

  4. In 2025 the Animal Welfare Committee found that CO₂ causes pigs “pain, respiratory distress and fear”, and concluded that its use as a stunning method “should be prohibited”, with any transition “within five years”.

    UK Animal Welfare Committee (2025), paras 103, 134 and 136.

United Kingdom

  1. Around 90% of pigs in England and Wales were stunned with high-concentration CO₂ in the survey week in February 2024, up from 88% in 2022 and 86% in 2018 (government figures). In 2003 it was about a third of pigs killed in Great Britain, and in 2013 just over half.

    Food Standards Agency, Slaughter Sector Survey 2024 (England and Wales). FSA, Survey into Slaughter Methods 2018 (published February 2019). FAWC (2003), para 154. Defra, WATOK 2015 Post-Implementation Review (2021), para 204.

  2. Gas stunning systems are installed in 8 pig plants in England, 3 in Northern Ireland, 1 in Scotland and none in Wales.

    UK Animal Welfare Committee (2025), para 28.

  3. The legal minimum is 80% CO₂, under the EU regulation retained in Great Britain, and the rules in England and in Northern Ireland bar any pig from entering the gas below it. In England and Wales each pig must be exposed to the gas “for long enough to ensure it is killed”; the rules in Scotland and Northern Ireland contain no such requirement. In Northern Ireland the EU regulation itself still applies, under the Windsor Framework.

    The Welfare of Animals at the Time of Killing (England) Regulations 2015, Schedule 1, para 29. The Welfare of Animals at the Time of Killing (Wales) Regulations 2014, Schedule 1, para 29. The Welfare of Animals at the Time of Killing (Scotland) Regulations 2012, Schedule 1, para 9. The Welfare of Animals at the Time of Killing Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2014, Schedule 1, para 29. Regulation (EC) No 1099/2009, Annex I (as retained in Great Britain). Windsor Framework, Annex 2, section 40.

  4. In 2003 the government’s advisers, the Farm Animal Welfare Council, concluded that stunning and killing pigs with high concentrations of CO₂ “is not acceptable” and asked for it to be phased out within five years.

    Farm Animal Welfare Council, Report on the Welfare of Farmed Animals at Slaughter or Killing, Part 1: Red Meat Animals (2003), paras 159–160.

  5. In December 2025 the government committed to “ban the use of carbon dioxide gas stunning of pigs, subject to a consultation”, in its strategy for England.

    Defra, Animal Welfare Strategy for England (22 December 2025).

  6. As of October 2026 that consultation had not been launched. Ministers say Defra “will consult on banning carbon dioxide gas stunning of pigs”, with details to come later in the year.

    UK Parliament, written question HL2873, answered 11 September 2026.

Australia

  1. A total of 1,202,060 pigs were slaughtered in Victoria in the 2022–23 licence year, and about 93% of them were gas stunned (a Victorian government figure). Two of the state’s six pig abattoirs use CO₂.

    Parliament of Victoria, Legislative Council Economy and Infrastructure Committee, Inquiry into pig welfare in Victoria (June 2024), pp.79–80, citing the Victorian government’s submission.

  2. Australian Pork Limited estimates that about 85% of Australia’s pigs are processed at seven export-registered abattoirs, all of which use CO₂ stunning (an industry estimate).

    Parliament of Victoria, Inquiry into pig welfare in Victoria (2024), p.28.

  3. The Victorian parliament’s committee found that “CO2 gassing as a method of stunning is aversive to pigs who experience high levels of pain and stress”. A motion to replace that finding with one calling CO₂ best practice was defeated 3 votes to 5.

    Parliament of Victoria, Inquiry into pig welfare in Victoria (2024), Finding 9, p.87, and extracts of proceedings, p.208.

  4. In December 2024 Victoria’s government replied that “CO2 gas stunning is currently considered the best practice method for stunning pigs prior to slaughter”, and that “there has been no success to date in developing a less aversive practical viable alternative”.

    Victorian Government Response to the Inquiry into pig welfare in Victoria (December 2024), p.9.

  5. Across 1,769 pigs at five commercial abattoirs, gasping in the gondola was seen in 63–82% of pigs, and climbing onto other pigs in 1–24%, depending on the abattoir. The Victorian government describes the study as industry-funded.

    Jongman, E. C. et al., Animal 15(2):100134 (2021). Australian abattoirs.

Ireland

  1. Ireland’s agriculture minister: “In Ireland, the majority of pigs are stunned by carbon dioxide in high concentration, with a smaller number stunned by electrical stunning as permitted in Regulation 1099/2009.” Asked how many were gassed, he gave no number. Ireland killed 3,352,370 pigs in 2025 (a government figure).

    Dáil Éireann, written answer 668 [49512/26], 30 June 2026.

  2. “A specific review of the stunning methods used for pigs has not been carried out in Ireland.”

    Dáil Éireann, written answer 669 [49513/26], 30 June 2026.

United States

  1. US federal rules set no minimum gas concentration, and say that “in swine, carbon dioxide may be administered to induce death in the animals before they are shackled, hoisted, thrown, cast, or cut”.

    9 CFR 313.5 (Chemical; carbon dioxide).

  2. The USDA publishes no figure for how many pigs are gassed. Unpublished data from the Pig Improvement Company, quoted in a 2023 petition to the USDA by animal-welfare groups, put CO₂ stunning at 86.2% of US pigs in 2020, and 96.2% in plants slaughtering more than 4,500 pigs a day (an industry estimate).

    Animal Welfare Institute and others, Petition 23-05 to USDA FSIS (16 May 2023), p.3.

Canada

  1. Canadian law requires a blow or an electric current to cause “an immediate loss of consciousness”, but gas only “a rapid loss of consciousness”, and it sets no minimum CO₂ concentration.

    Safe Food for Canadians Regulations (SOR/2018-108), s.141.

  2. Canada’s food inspection agency says “some pigs react to the gas at these high concentrations by attempting to escape and showing marked shaking of their heads”, and that “carbon dioxide is irritating to respiratory mucous membranes”. Canada publishes no national figure for how many pigs are gassed.

    Canadian Food Inspection Agency, slaughter methods and monitoring (2019). Canadian Food Inspection Agency, humane slaughter guideline for mammalian food animals (2019), s.6.5.4.

New Zealand

  1. New Zealand’s code allows pigs to be stunned only with a captive bolt, an electrical stunner or a firearm: “Controlled atmosphere stunning of large mammals is not currently carried out in New Zealand.”

    Ministry for Primary Industries, Code of Welfare: Commercial Slaughter (2018, amended June 2026), Minimum Standard 6(b), p.13.

  2. About 60% of the pork eaten in New Zealand is imported (an industry figure). In January to September 2024 the biggest suppliers were the US, Canada and Spain, with Australia another major source.

    NZ Pork (industry body). Farmers Weekly NZ, 26 November 2024, reporting NZ Pork data.

European Union

  1. EU law sets 80% as the minimum CO₂ concentration for pigs, and still lists high-concentration CO₂ as a permitted method for them.

    Council Regulation (EC) No 1099/2009, Annex I, Chapter II, point 7 and Table 3.

Pig farming procedures

The rules behind the piglet procedures and the farrowing crate in the pig file.

  1. EU minimum rules require anaesthetic and prolonged pain relief for castration or tail docking only after the seventh day of life: “If castration or docking of tails is practised after the seventh day of life, it shall only be performed under anaesthetic and additional prolonged analgesia by a veterinarian.”

    Council Directive 2008/120/EC laying down minimum standards for the protection of pigs, Annex I, Chapter I, point 8.

  2. Ireland: “A person, other than a registered veterinary practitioner, shall not castrate or dock the tail of a pig older than 7 days”, and above that age a vet must do it “under anaesthetic and additional prolonged analgesia”.

    European Communities (Welfare of Farmed Animals) Regulations 2010 (S.I. No. 311 of 2010), regulation 21, as made (FAOLEX copy).

  3. Canada: “Castration performed after 10 days of age must be done with anesthetic and analgesic to help control pain”, and since 1 July 2016 castration at any age “must be done with analgesics to help control post-procedure pain”. Sows “must not be kept in farrowing crates for more than 6 weeks in any one reproductive cycle”, except in exceptional circumstances.

    NFACC, Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Pigs (2014), sections 1.1.3 and 4.5.1.

  4. In the US, piglet procedures including castration “are commonly performed without analgesia”, and “no analgesic products are currently approved for use in pigs by the US Food and Drug Administration”.

    de Melo et al., Porcine Health Management 12 (20 May 2026).

  5. Germany has banned piglet castration without anaesthesia since 1 January 2021.

    German Federal Ministry of Agriculture, debate on piglet castration.

The homepage

The rest of the headline statistics in the scroll journey, in order of appearance.

  1. Pig cognition is comparable to dogs and, on some tasks, young children.

    Marino, L. & Colvin, C. M., “Thinking Pigs,” Int. J. Comparative Psychology, 28 (2015).

  2. Chickens show rudimentary numerical ability and future-oriented cognition.

    Marino, L., “Thinking chickens,” Animal Cognition 20 (2017); Rugani et al., Science 347 (2015).

  3. Fish possess nociceptors and show pain responses; a cleaner wrasse passed a modified mirror mark test (interpretation contested).

    Sneddon et al., Proc. R. Soc. B 270 (2003); Kohda et al., PLOS Biology (2019, 2022).

  4. More than 80 billion land animals are slaughtered each year, and over nine in ten are chickens. In 2024 the count across seven species (chickens, turkeys, ducks, pigs, cattle, sheep and goats) was about 86.3 billion, including 78.5 billion chickens, 1.49 billion pigs, about 704 million sheep and about 305 million cattle.

    Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2025), with major processing by Our World in Data (updated 25 February 2026), 2024 figures.

  5. Roughly 1–2 trillion fish are killed each year, overwhelmingly wild-caught.

    fishcount.org.uk (Mood & Brooke), estimates of fish numbers.

  6. Meat, dairy, eggs and farmed fish use ~83% of farmland for 18% of calories and 37% of protein; a plant-based shift could cut food’s land use 76% (3.1 billion hectares) and emissions 49%.

    Poore, J. & Nemecek, T., Science 360 (2018).

  7. The farmland a plant-based world would no longer need is an area equivalent to the US, China, the European Union and Australia combined. Oxford’s summary of the study calls avoiding meat and dairy “the single biggest way to reduce your environmental impact on the planet”.

    University of Oxford (LEAP), release on Poore & Nemecek (1 June 2018).

  8. Beef’s water footprint averages ~15,400 L/kg (green+blue+grey global average).

    Mekonnen, M. M. & Hoekstra, A. Y., Ecosystems 15 (2012).

  9. Livestock produce about 14.5% of all human-caused greenhouse-gas emissions, counted across the whole supply chain from feed to processing.

    Gerber, P. J. et al., Tackling Climate Change Through Livestock: A Global Assessment of Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities, FAO (2013), using the GLEAM model.

  10. Cattle ranching drives roughly 80% of deforested Amazon land use.

    Yale Global Forest Atlas; FAO, Livestock’s Long Shadow (2006).

  11. Satellite images of northwest Rondônia, Brazil, in 2000 and 2012. NASA describes how cleared land in the region is turned into cattle pasture and merged into large ranches.

    NASA Earth Observatory, World of Change: Amazon Deforestation (Terra MODIS imagery, 2000 and 2012), public domain.

  12. An estimated 73% of antimicrobials sold worldwide are used in animals raised for food.

    Tiseo, K. et al., Antibiotics 9 (2020), citing Van Boeckel, T. P. et al., Science 357 (2017).

  13. In 2019, 1.27 million deaths were directly attributable to antimicrobial resistance (AMR is a driver, not the sole cause).

    Murray, C. J. L. et al. (GRAM), The Lancet 399 (2022).

  14. WHO recommends ending routine antibiotic use in healthy food-producing animals.

    WHO, Guidelines on use of medically important antimicrobials in food-producing animals (2017).

  15. In the US, according to employer-reported data, meat and poultry workers suffer serious injuries at about twice the rate of other workers.

    US Department of Labor, OSHA, release on new inspection guidance for the animal slaughtering and processing industries (16 October 2024).

  16. In one study included in a 2021 systematic review, 48% of women working at a poultry processing plant in rural North Carolina had depressive symptoms, against 20% of other working women in the same area (47.8% and 19.7%).

    Lipscomb, H. J. et al., Depressive symptoms among working women in rural North Carolina: a comparison of women in poultry processing and other low-wage jobs, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 30 (2007); reviewed in Slade & Alleyne, Trauma, Violence, & Abuse (2021).

  17. Killed at the same rate we kill animals, humanity (about 8.3 billion) would be gone in roughly 38 days at the land-animal rate (about 80 billion a year), or roughly one to two-and-a-half days once fish are counted (over a trillion a year). It is our population divided by the animals killed per year.

    Derived from FAO / Our World in Data (land animals), fishcount.org.uk (fish) and UN / Worldometer world population (2026).

The library

1472 unique sources cited across the Q&A library.

  1. 1 Timothy 4:1-5, King James Version and New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition, Bible Gateway Cited in: What does the Bible say about eating meat?
  2. 7 USC 1906, Exemption of ritual slaughter (Humane Methods of Slaughter Act), US Code Cited in: Is halal meat cruel? Religious slaughter and stunning
  3. 9 CFR 313.5, Chemical; carbon dioxide, US Code of Federal Regulations Cited in: Is humane slaughter possible? How pigs are really killed
  4. Aaslyng et al. (2023, corrected 2024), Protein content and amino acid composition in the diet of Danish vegans: a cross-sectional study, BMC Nutr Cited in: Do vegans need to combine proteins at every meal?
  5. Abdelrahman et al. (2026), A 2 year retrospective study of vegan patients and their pregnancy outcomes in a tertiary level Irish hospital, International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics Cited in: Is it safe to be vegan while pregnant or breastfeeding?
  6. Abeyesinghe et al. (2005), Can domestic fowl, Gallus gallus domesticus, show self-control?, Animal Behaviour Cited in: How intelligent are chickens?
  7. Abraham et al. (2022), Nutritional intake and biomarker status in strict raw food eaters, Nutrients Cited in: Is a raw vegan diet healthy?
  8. Abris et al. (2024), Cause-specific and all-cause mortalities in vegetarian compared with those in nonvegetarian participants from the Adventist Health Study-2 cohort, Am J Clin Nutr Cited in: Do we need meat to be healthy?
  9. Access to Insight (2005), The Five Precepts (pañca-sila) Cited in: Does religion require eating meat or animal sacrifice?
  10. ACIL Allen for the Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (2021), Australian Animal Welfare Standards and Guidelines for Poultry, Decision Regulation Impact Statement, guideline GA 10.2 Cited in: Are eggs cruel? What happens to hens and male chicks
  11. Acosta-Salmon & Southgate (2005), Mantle regeneration in the pearl oysters Pinctada fucata and Pinctada margaritifera, Aquaculture Cited in: Do oysters feel pain? Are they vegan?
  12. Acts 10:9-16, King James Version and New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition, Bible Gateway Cited in: What does the Bible say about eating meat?
  13. AgFunderNews (2026), Standing Ovation nets $34m, gears up for US launch of casein via precision fermentation Cited in: Is vegan cheese any good, and does it melt?
  14. Aguirre et al. (2019), Serious neurological compromise due to vitamin B12 deficiency in infants of vegan and vegetarian mothers, Arch Argent Pediatr Cited in: Is a vegan diet safe for children and babies?
  15. AHDB (2025), Beef from the dairy herd continued to bolster domestic supply in 2024, industry figures from British Cattle Movement Service records (archived copy) Cited in: Is dairy cruel if the cow isn’t killed?
  16. AHDB (2026), Dairy beef calf registration growth and suckler decline persisted in 2025, industry figures from British Cattle Movement Service records Cited in: Is dairy cruel if the cow isn’t killed?, What happens to male calves on dairy farms?
  17. AHDB (2026), Market trends shift cow slaughter patterns, industry figures from British Cattle Movement Service records Cited in: Is dairy cruel if the cow isn’t killed?
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  21. Aleksandrowicz et al. (2016), The impacts of dietary change on greenhouse gas emissions, land use, water use, and health: a systematic review, PLoS One Cited in: How much water do meat and dairy use?
  22. Alexander et al. (2008), Differences in phosphorus and nitrogen delivery to the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi River Basin, Environ Sci Technol Cited in: Does eating meat cause ocean dead zones?
  23. Ali et al. (2026), β-casomorphin-7: a review of occurrence, identification, techno-functionality, and effects on human health, npj Science of Food Cited in: Is cheese addictive?
  24. Allen et al. (2000), Hormones and diet: low insulin-like growth factor-I but normal bioavailable androgens in vegan men, British Journal of Cancer Cited in: Is veganism unmanly? Do real men need meat?
  25. Allergy UK incorporating Anaphylaxis UK, Cow's milk allergy factsheet Cited in: I’m cooking for a vegan. What can I make?
  26. Allergy UK incorporating Anaphylaxis UK, Egg allergy factsheet Cited in: I’m cooking for a vegan. What can I make?
  27. Allergy UK incorporating Anaphylaxis UK, Fish allergy factsheet Cited in: I’m cooking for a vegan. What can I make?
  28. Allner et al. (2026), Growth parameters and IGF-1 axis biomarkers differ among omnivorous, vegetarian, and vegan children, Eur J Nutr Cited in: Is a vegan diet safe for children and babies?
  29. American Anti-Vivisection Society, Testing Cited in: How many animals are used in experiments each year?
  30. American Cancer Society (2025), Soy and cancer risk: our expert's advice, American Cancer Society Cited in: Does soy cause breast cancer?, Is soy bad for men? Soy, testosterone and oestrogen
  31. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2019), Corrigendum: Effects of red meat, white meat, and nonmeat protein sources on atherogenic lipoprotein measures (APPROACH) Cited in: Is chicken healthier than red meat?
  32. American Veal Association (2018), AVA members complete transition to group housing (the US veal industry body) Cited in: What happens to male calves on dairy farms?
  33. An et al. (2022), Micronutrient supplementation to reduce cardiovascular risk, J Am Coll Cardiol Cited in: Do vegans get enough zinc and selenium?
  34. Añazco et al. (2023), Common beans as a source of amino acids and cofactors for collagen biosynthesis, Nutrients Cited in: Do vegans need collagen or animal fat?
  35. Andrén Aronsson et al. (2019), Association of gluten intake during the first 5 years of life with incidence of celiac disease autoimmunity and celiac disease among children at increased risk, JAMA Cited in: Is gluten bad for you?
  36. Andrews, Birch, Sebo et al. (2024), The New York Declaration on Animal Consciousness Cited in: Does it matter that animals can’t consent?, How intelligent are chickens?, Do fish feel pain?, Do insects feel pain?, Do oysters feel pain? Are they vegan?, Is eating meat a personal choice?, Is it hypocritical for vegans to kill mosquitoes?, Where do vegans draw the line?
  37. Animal Aid (campaign group), Race Horse Death Watch (deaths on British racecourses since 13 March 2007) Cited in: Are horse racing, riding and circuses cruel to animals?
  38. Animal Charity Evaluators (2021, not updated since April 2024), The Effects of Diet Choices Cited in: Is eating meat a personal choice?, I slipped up on my vegan diet. Now what?
  39. Animal Health and Welfare Act 2013 (Ireland), section 71B and section 52(2A), as inserted in 2022 (Law Reform Commission revised Act) Cited in: Are fur, silk and down cruel to animals?
  40. Animal Law Foundation (2025), Food Chain Misinformation, a UK animal-law charity's review of how producers and supermarkets depict farmed animals Cited in: Do farm adverts show how animals really live?
  41. Animal Welfare (Livestock Exports) Act 2024, sections 1 and 7 Cited in: What happens to male calves on dairy farms?
  42. Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022, sections 2 and 5, legislation.gov.uk Cited in: Where do vegans draw the line?
  43. Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022, UK Parliament Cited in: If lions eat meat, why shouldn’t humans?, Is eating meat a personal choice?, Why do we love dogs but eat pigs?
  44. Animal Welfare Act 2006, section 4: Unnecessary suffering (England and Wales), legislation.gov.uk Cited in: Is eating meat a personal choice?
  45. Animal Welfare Act 2006, section 9, Duty of person responsible for animal to ensure welfare (England and Wales) Cited in: Is it ethical for vegans to keep pets?
  46. Animal Welfare Amendment Act (No 2) 2015 (New Zealand), section 37, inserting section 84A into the Animal Welfare Act 1999 Cited in: Is animal testing for cosmetics banned?
  47. Animal Welfare Committee (2023), Opinion on alternatives to culling newly hatched chicks in the egg and poultry industries, advising Defra and the Scottish and Welsh Governments (UK) Cited in: Are eggs cruel? What happens to hens and male chicks
  48. Animal Welfare Committee (2025), Opinion on the welfare impacts on pigs of high concentration CO2 gas stunning and of potential alternative stunning methods, UK Government Cited in: Is humane, free-range meat ethical?, Is humane slaughter possible? How pigs are really killed, Is killing animals wrong if they don’t understand death?, Why do we love dogs but eat pigs?
  49. Animal Welfare Institute and others (2023), Petition to USDA FSIS on video cameras in CO2 pig-slaughter gondolas, 16 May 2023, p.3, quoting unpublished Pig Improvement Company data Cited in: Is humane slaughter possible? How pigs are really killed
  50. Anthis & Anthis (2019), Global farmed and factory farmed animals estimates, Sentience Institute (an animal-advocacy research group) Cited in: Is eating meat just the circle of life?, Do farm adverts show how animals really live?
  51. Anton et al. (2012), Diet type and changes in food cravings following weight loss: findings from the POUNDS LOST Trial, Eat Weight Disord Cited in: Do meat cravings mean your body needs meat?
  52. Apolzan et al. (2017), Frequency of consuming foods predicts changes in cravings for those foods during weight loss: the POUNDS Lost study, Obesity Cited in: Is cheese addictive?, Do meat cravings mean your body needs meat?
  53. Appleby & Key (2016), The long-term health of vegetarians and vegans, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society Cited in: Is a vegan diet healthy?
  54. Appleby et al. (2007), Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford, European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Cited in: Do you need dairy for calcium and strong bones?
  55. Appleby et al. (2016), Mortality in vegetarians and comparable nonvegetarians in the United Kingdom, Am J Clin Nutr Cited in: Do we need meat to be healthy?
  56. Appleby et al. (2016), Mortality in vegetarians and comparable nonvegetarians in the United Kingdom, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Cited in: Carnivore or vegan: what does the evidence say?, Is a vegan diet healthy?
  57. Applegate et al. (2018), Soy consumption and the risk of prostate cancer: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis, Nutrients Cited in: Does soy cause breast cancer?
  58. April In the Apiary (2022), a monthly column on the British Beekeepers Association website Cited in: Is honey vegan?
  59. Arentson-Lantz et al. (2024), Meals containing equivalent total protein from foods providing complete, complementary, or incomplete essential amino acid profiles do not differentially affect 24-h skeletal muscle protein synthesis in healthy, middle-aged women, J Nutr Cited in: Do vegans need to combine proteins at every meal?
  60. Arterburn et al. (2008), Algal-oil capsules and cooked salmon: nutritionally equivalent sources of docosahexaenoic acid, J Am Diet Assoc Cited in: Do vegans need omega-3? Algae oil vs fish oil
  61. Asher et al. (2014), Study of current and former vegetarians and vegans (US), Faunalytics Cited in: How hard is it to go vegan?
  62. Askari et al. (2022), Vegetarian diet and the risk of depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies, Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr Cited in: Does a vegan diet cause depression?
  63. Askow et al. (2025), Impact of vegan diets on resistance exercise-mediated myofibrillar protein synthesis in healthy young males and females: a randomized controlled trial, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise Cited in: Do vegans get enough protein, and how much do you need?, Can athletes be vegan?
  64. Assemblée nationale (2026), Question écrite n° 13381, Persistance de la pratique du broyage de poussins, with the agriculture ministry's answer of 1 September 2026 (France) Cited in: Are eggs cruel? What happens to hens and male chicks
  65. Assen & Abegaz (2024), Review on quality attributes of milk and commonly produced dairy products in Ethiopia, Heliyon Cited in: How do you eat out as a vegan?
  66. Ataman (2026), Where countries stand on cultivated meat regulation in 2026, FoodNavigator Cited in: Where can you buy lab-grown meat?
  67. Atarbashi-Moghadam et al. (2020), Effects of raw vegan diet on periodontal and dental parameters, Tzu Chi Medical Journal Cited in: Is a raw vegan diet healthy?
  68. Aune et al. (2015), Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Cited in: Is dairy bad for you?
  69. Aune et al. (2016), Whole grain consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all cause and cause specific mortality: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies, BMJ Cited in: Is gluten bad for you?
  70. Aune et al. (2026), Vegetarian and vegan diets and cancer incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies, European Journal of Epidemiology Cited in: Is a vegan diet healthy?, Does red and processed meat cause cancer?
  71. Austin et al. (2024), Bone mineral density and body composition in Australians following plant-based diets vs. regular meat diets, Frontiers in Nutrition Cited in: Do vegans have weaker bones?
  72. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2026), Livestock products, June 2026 (quarterly sheep and lamb slaughter) Cited in: Is wool vegan, and is leather just a by-product?
  73. Australian Institute of Sport (accessed 2026), Sports Supplement Framework: Group A Cited in: Can you build muscle on a vegan diet?
  74. Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (2012), Are eggs good for people with type 2 diabetes? ACTRN12612001266853 Cited in: Are eggs healthy? What about the cholesterol?
  75. Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX), National Wool Declaration statistics: mulesing status report (to 6 October 2026) Cited in: What is mulesing, and how many sheep die on live export?, Is wool vegan, and is leather just a by-product?
  76. Avital et al. (2026), Growth trajectories in infants from families with plant-based or omnivorous dietary patterns, JAMA Network Open Cited in: Is it safe to be vegan while pregnant or breastfeeding?, Is a vegan diet safe for children and babies?
  77. Avnon et al. (2021), The impact of a vegan diet on pregnancy outcomes, Journal of Perinatology Cited in: Is it safe to be vegan while pregnant or breastfeeding?
  78. Aznar-Cervantes et al. (2019), Effect of different cocoon stifling methods on the properties of silk fibroin biomaterials, Scientific Reports Cited in: Are fur, silk and down cruel to animals?
  79. Babiker et al. (2022), Cross-sectoral perspectives, IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Working Group III, chapter 12 Cited in: Does diet matter for climate change, or just fossil fuels?
  80. Baek et al. (2025), Hibiscus collagen alternative (VC-H1) as an oral skin rejuvenating agent: a 12-week pilot study, International Journal of Molecular Sciences Cited in: Do vegans need collagen or animal fat?
  81. Baeshen et al. (2014), Cell factories for insulin production, Microb Cell Fact Cited in: Is precision fermentation GMO, and is it safe?
  82. Bailey et al. (2025), Comparative bioavailability of DHA and EPA from microalgal and fish oil in adults, Int J Mol Sci Cited in: Do vegans need omega-3? Algae oil vs fish oil
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